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Peer reviewed ; [EN] The Paris Agreement has moved us backward from a world where binding burdensharing agreements like the Kyoto Protocol were the standard, to a world where climate policy is reduced to pledge and review. Nevertheless, this has allowed climate policy to gain new momentum. This paper argues that game theoretical analyses of International Environmental Agreements have not incorporated this change yet, as they were all designed to analyze burden sharing agreements, or agreements where signatories essentially become one player. Despite this fact, some relevant insights from this literature are still relevant to guiding future climate policy in the new contex I gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the MEC (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness), through the project ACBPA (ECO2012-35432). The ideas presented in this paper have greatly benefitted from discussions with several colleagues, in particular Tarik Tazdaït, Jean-Christophe Péreau and Michael Finus. The comments of an anonymous referee are also gratefully acknowledged ; [FR] L'Accord de Paris nous a déplacé d'un monde où les accords fermes de partage du fardeau, comme pour le Protocole de Kyoto, étaient standards à un monde où la politique climatique se réduit à l'engagement et le réajustement. Cela a néanmoins permis de donner un nouvel élan à la politique climatique. Dans ce papier nous soutenons que les approches en termes de jeux n'ont pas encore intégré ce changement dans la mesure où elles ont été conçues pour analyser les accords sur le partage du fardeau, ou encore les accords où les signataires finissent par ne faire qu'un. Malgré cela, certains éléments marquants de cette littérature conserve toute leur pertinence pour guider la politique climatique future dans ce nouveau contexte

[EN] The Paris Agreement has moved us backward from a world where binding burdensharing agreements like the Kyoto Protocol were the standard, to a world where climate policy is reduced to pledge and review. Nevertheless, this has allowed climate policy to gain new momentum. This paper argues that game theoretical analyses of International Environmental Agreements have not incorporated this change yet, as they were all designed to analyze burden sharing agreements, or agreements where signatories essentially become one player. Despite this fact, some relevant insights from this literature are still relevant to guiding future climate policy in the new contex ; [FR] L'Accord de Paris nous a déplacé d'un monde où les accords fermes de partage du fardeau, comme pour le Protocole de Kyoto, étaient standards à un monde où la politique climatique se réduit à l'engagement et le réajustement. Cela a néanmoins permis de donner un nouvel élan à la politique climatique. Dans ce papier nous soutenons que les approches en termes de jeux n'ont pas encore intégré ce changement dans la mesure où elles ont été conçues pour analyser les accords sur le partage du fardeau, ou encore les accords où les signataires finissent par ne faire qu'un. Malgré cela, certains éléments marquants de cette littérature conserve toute leur pertinence pour guider la politique climatique future dans ce nouveau contexte ; I gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the MEC (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness), through the project ACBPA (ECO2012-35432). The ideas presented in this paper have greatly benefitted from discussions with several colleagues, in particular Tarik Tazdaït, Jean-Christophe Péreau and Michael Finus. The comments of an anonymous referee are also gratefully acknowledged ; Peer reviewed

We argue that the incentive structure of all individual and coordinated measures across countries to contain the corona-pandemic is that of a weakest-link public good game. We discuss a selection of theoretical and experimental key results of weakest-link games and interpret them in the light of the corona-pandemic. First, we highlight that experimental evidence does not support the assumption that coordination can be trivially solved, even among symmetric players. Second, we argue that for asymmetric countries the weakest-link game does not only pose a problem of coordination, but also a problem of cooperation. Third, we show how and under which conditions self-enforcing treaties can foster coordination and cooperation. We account for the possibility that countries make mistakes when choosing their actions. Our discussion shows that North–South cooperation is relevant and likely to be self-enforcing and that regional cooperation, e.g., within the EU, will also be important. ; Funding was provided by "University of Bath (VB-EC3BMF) Prof. Michael Finus and Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (TrenGood, ECO2017-84461-R) Prof Alejandro Caparros." ; Peer reviewed

We discuss a model of gradual coalition formation with positive externalities in which a leading country endogenously decides whether to negotiate multilaterally or sequentially over climate change. We show that the leader may choose a sequential path, and that the choice is determined by the convexity of the TU-game and the free-rider payoffs of the followers. Except in a few clearly defined cases, the outcome of the negotiation process is always the grand coalition, although the process may need some time. This holds for the standard IEA game with heterogeneous players even if the grand coalition is not stable in a multilateral context. We also analyze the role of a facilitating agency. The agency has an incentive to speed up intra-stage negotiations and to extend the period between negotiation stages in a sequential process. ; Peer reviewed

Market goods and services are measured in national accounts at their exchange values (price by quantity), while environmental valuation methods for environmental services estimate consumer surplus or hicksian variations. This prevents a direct aggregation of environmental values in national accounts. This Article proposes a methodology that allows aggregation under homogeneous conditions. For free access for recreational visitors, we propose to simulate the full market (demand, supply and competitive context), obtaining a range of values. We also propose methods for estimating the switching values of self-consumed environmental services by private private owners. The methodology is illustrated by two applications to Spanish forests. ; Peer reviewed ; Market goods and services are measured in national accounts at their exchange values (price by quantity), while environmental valuation methods for environmental services estimate consumer surplus or hicksian variations. This prevents a direct aggregation of environmental values in national accounts. This Article proposes a methodology that allows aggregation under homogeneous conditions. For free access for recreational visitors, we propose to simulate the full market (demand, supply and competitive context), obtaining a range of values. We also propose methods for estimating the switching values of self-consumed environmental services by private private owners. The methodology is illustrated by two applications to Spanish forests. ; Los bienes y servicios de mercado se miden en la contabilidad nacional por sus valores de cambio (precio por cantidad), mientras que los métodos de valoración ambiental de los servicios ambientales estiman el excedente del consumidor o las variaciones hicksianas. Esto impide una agregación directa de los valores ambientales en la contabilidad nacional. Este artículo propone una metodología que permite la agregación en condiciones homogéneas. Para el libre acceso de los visitantes recreativos proponemos simular el mercado completo ...

Se destacan los aspectos fundamentales de los principales instrumentos en la política energética europea que afectan a la bioenergía, en el marco de las energías renovables. Se presenta la situación actual en la Unión Europea (UE) de cada una de las cuatro fuentes energéticas diferentes correspondientes a la bioenergía: biomasa sólida, residuos sólidos urbanos, biogás y biocarburantes, señalando en cada caso los países más importantes así como las correspondientes medidas que tienen instauradas para su promoción. Por otra parte, se examina la contribución potencial de la expansión de cultivos bioenergéticos al cumplimiento de los objetivos de reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, de promoción de las energías renovables y de fomento del uso de biocarburantes en la UE, tendiendo en cuenta sólo lo que puede producirse en el territorio de la UE. ; It highlights the fundamental aspects of the main instruments in the European energy policy that affects the bioenergy, in the frame of the renewable energies. This paper reflects the current situation of the EU in each of the four energy sources related to bioenergy: solid biomass, urban solid waste, biogas and biofuel, pointing out in each case the most important countries together with the corresponding measures they have established for such purpose. On the other hand, the paper analyses the potential contribution of the spread of bioenergy growing to the fulfilment of goals like the reduction in Greenhouse gasses emissions, the foster of renewable energy and the use of biofuel in the EU, bearing in mind just what can be produced in the EU territory.

Publicado en el número 729 (2008) de 'Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento, Cultura', bajo el título monográfico: "Cualificar el espacio: transiciones ambientales para el nuevo milenio". ; [EN] The objective of this paper is to show the measurement of the environmental income from two private Spanish forests, the Cork Oak Woodlands of the Alcornocales Natural Park (Cádiz and Málaga) and the Scotch Pine Forest of the Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid and Segovia). We also contribute to the technical and political debate on governmental regulations of forest environmental accounting in European Union. We have measured the environmental goods and services consumed by private landowners and public visitors through the contingent valuation technique. We have estimated the value of mushrooms gathering by public visitors in the Scotch Pine Forests of the Sierra de Guadarrama taking the price and harvest from the mushroom market in Pinar Grande (Soria). The value for carbon estimated accounts for the avoided damage of the greenhouse effect mitigation due to the sequestration of the atmospheric carbon dioxide. The environmental valuations show that the private environmental profitability rates in the Alcornocales Natural Park and in the Sierra de Guadarrama are 2.13 % and 3.43 %, in relation to their corresponding land market prices. We have estimated that the total net values added are 1.63 and 3.28 times higher than its corresponding conventional net values added in the Alcornocales Natural Park and in the Sierra de Guadarrama. ; [ES] El objetivo de este artículo es presentar una medición de la renta ambiental en dos tipos de bosques privados representativos españoles, como son los alcornocales del Parque Natural Los Alcornocales (Cádiz y Málaga) y los pinares de silvestre de la Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid y Segovia). Con este objetivo también se pretende contribuir a los debates técnico y político sobre la necesidad de que los gobiernos regulen la aplicación de las cuentas ambientales integradas de los bosques europeos. La medición de los bienes y servicios ambientales del bosque consumidos por los propietarios privados y los visitantes públicos se ha realizado aplicando la técnica de valoración contingente. El valor de las setas recogidas por el público en los pinares de la Sierra de Guadarrama ha sido estimado aceptando los datos de precio y rendimiento del mercado de setas en Pinar Grande (Soria). La estimación del valor del carbono refleja el valor del daño evitado de la mitigación del efecto invernadero de la reducción del dióxido de carbono atmosférico. Las valoraciones ambientales muestran que las tasas de rentabilidad ambientales privadas del Parque Natural Los Alcornocales y de los pinares de la Sierra de Guadarrama alcanzan el 2,13 % y el 3,43 %, con relación a sus precios de mercado de la tierra. Se ha estimado que los valores añadidos totales superan en 1,63 y 3,28 veces a sus valores añadidos convencionales respectivos en el Parque Natural Los Alcornocales y en los pinares de la Sierra de Guadarrama. ; Peer reviewed

A major problem faced by government as trustee of society charged with conserving the nation's forest environmental asset is that the standard Economic Account for Forestry (EAF) fails to measure the contribution of nature to total forest incomes and environmental assets. In the context of this government mission, the debate arises with regard to how to uncover the contribution of nature to the total forest incomes enjoyed by people through a refined accounting framework which extends the EAF. The latter is applied by the statistics office to estimate the values added of timber, firewood, cork, resin, industrial nut and other non-woody final products of the forest at national/sub-national scale. Bearing in mind this narrow scope of the EAF, this research proposes the application of the experimental Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS), which extends the forest incomes and environmental asset estimates by applying simulated exchange values stated/revealed by consumers for non-market public goods and services. We apply the EAF and AAS frameworks to 12 large publicly-owned protected conifer forest farms which are not available for sale on the competitive land market and which cover an area of 47,262 ha in Andalusia-Spain. In this conifer farm case study, the EAF considers the economic activities of timber, firewood, aromatic plants and residential service. The AAS adds to the EAF activities those of grazing, conservation forestry, hunting, livestock, agricultural crops, livestock-keeper private amenity, fire services, free access recreation, mushrooms, carbon, landscape conservation, threatened wild biodiversity and water supply runoff stored lower down the watershed in public reservoirs. The objectives of this conifer farm case study are, first, to compare the final products and incomes estimated by applying the EAF and AAS frameworks and, second, to measure the sensitivity of conifer farm environmental assets to changes in land ownership rights and discounting rates in accordance with the AAS results. The conifer farm results show total income measured by the AAS is 38 times higher than the EAF net value added (NVA) for the 2010 period. The AAS economic activities of forestry conservation, fire services and landscape conservation activities generate 71% of the conifer farm labour compensation. The AAS opening environmental asset measured at the assumed competitive real baseline discounting rate of 3% is 6371.6 €/ha, which is 3.7 times lower than it would be if the conifer farm was available for sale on the competitive land market. The change in the baseline discounting rate chosen, from 3% to 1.5%, would lead to an increase of 116% in the value of the opening environmental asset. The above results reveal the inconsistent EAF measurement of total conifer farm incomes. The sensitivity analysis underlines the important effects on the environmental asset arising from changes in land ownership rights and discounting rates. ; This research has received financial support from the RECAMAN (Grant number: Contract NET 165602), VAMSIL (Grant number: ref. 201810E036) and MAIA projects (Grant number: 817527).

© 2020 by the authors. ; The scientific debate over how to make visible the connections between the standard System of National Accounts (SNA) and its ongoing satellite Environmental Economic Ecosystem Accounting–Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA–EEA) is a challenge that is still pending. The literature on environmental accounting of agroforestry and silvopastoral landscapes rarely values the multiple ecosystem services of an area, an economic unit (e.g., farm), or a vegetation type (e.g., holm oak—Quercus ilex L.—open woodland). Generally, the literature presents the market value of the products consumed directly or a correction of the latter that reduces their exchange values in order to approximate them to their resource rents. In our previous publications, we have applied and compared our Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS) with the System of National Accounts (SNA), and we refined the latter to avoid the lag between income generation and its accounting in the period in which the product is extracted. These previous publications did not develop experimental applications of the SEEA–EEA with comparisons to the SNA and it being integrated into the AAS. The main novelty of this article is that, for the first time, we present detailed applications and comparisons of our developments of the refined SEEA–EEA and refined SNA with a simplified version of the AAS. The accounting frameworks applied take the production and capital accounts in the process of being updated by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) at the scale of the holm oak open woodlands of Andalusia into account. In this study, we compare three environmental accounting approaches for ecosystem services and environmental income measurements at basic and social prices: our slightly refined standard System of National Accounts (rSNA); our refined, updated and ongoing satellite System of Environmental Economic Accounting–Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (rSEEA–EEA); and our simplified Agroforestry Accounting System (sAAS). We tested them for 15 economic activities in 1408 thousand hectares of the predominantly mixed holm oak open woodland (HOW) land use tiles in the region of Andalusia, Spain. We considered the government institutional sector to be the collective owner of public economic activities, which we incorporated in the rSNA and the sAAS approaches. We discuss consistencies in environmental incomes identified from the results of the three ecosystem accounting frameworks applied to the HOW. The discrepancies in the measurement of ecosystem services of the government institutional sector between the rSEEA–EEA and the sAAS were due to the omission in the former of the government manufactured costs incurred in the supply of freely consumed public final products. The most notable finding of our comparison is that the ecosystem services and the environmental income results for individual market products offered the same values, whichever the ecosystem accounting framework applied. This was not the case with the ecosystem services of public products without market prices, due to the fact that the rSNA estimates these products at production cost and the rSEEA–EEA did not consider the government manufactured production costs and ordinary manufactured net operating margin of government final public product consumption. We also found that, according to modeling of the scheduled management of future biological resources of the HOW, the environmental income shows biological sustainability of the individual nature-based total product consumption. ; This study was funded by Agency for Water and Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia, Contract NET 165602; Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), grant number ref. 201810E036; and European Union, call H2020-SC5-2018-1 (grant no. 817527). ; Peer reviewed

Peer reviewed ; The scientific debate on how to make visible the linkages between the standard System of National Accounts (SNA) and its ongoing satellite System of Environmental Economic Accounting-Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EEA) is a challenge which is still pending. In previous publications we measured selected ecosystem accounting variables associated with Mediterranean forests and woodlands at market prices and simulated exchange prices in terms of ordinary net value added (NVA), ecosystem services (ES), environmental asset (EA), changes in environmental asset (CEA) and environmental income (EI) based on the experimental Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS). In this study, we applied 'own refined SNA' (rSNA) and SEEA-EEA (rSEEA-EEA) and a simplified AAS (sAAS) to measure the aforementioned environmental variables at basic and social prices for 15 economic activities considered in 1,408 thousand hectares of the predominantly mixed Holm oak open woodlands (HOW) in Andalusia-Spain. We incorporate the government institutional sector and environmental income in the rSNA and rSEEA-EEA. The government is perceived as the collective owner of public economic activities. Our objectives are to measure and discuss consistencies in total environmental incomes accruing from the results of the ecosystem accounting frameworks applied to HOW. The discrepancies in government institutional sector ecosystem services between rSEEA-EEA and sAAS are due to the omission in the former ecosystem accounting approach of the public farmer voluntary opportunity cost and government manufactured costs incurred in the supply of public final products enjoyed free by the consumers. The most relevant findings of this study are, firstly, that the EI of individual products for the period valued at social prices corresponds with the sustainable economic ecosystem services (except for private amenity), and according to the HOW scheduled modeling of future resource management, the EI also shows physical sustainability of individual ...

The standard System of National Accounts (SNA) omits the costs of the environmental inputs from nature and the environmental fixed asset degradation from the national/sub-national natural working landscapes. The United Nations Statistic Division (UNSD) is currently drafting the standardization of the Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (EEA), as part of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA). The EEA- aims to mitigate some of the limitations of the SNA by extending the concept of economic activity and explicitly incorporating ecosystem services and environmental assets provided by nature in the estimates of net value added, adjusted according to the costs of the environmental inputs consumed and the environmental fixed asset degradations of ecosystem. However, the NVAad proposed in the ongoing draft of the EEA is inconsistent in that it omits the manufactured costs of the public economic activities of the new government institutional sub-sector of the ecosystem trustee. In addition, the ongoing methodological guidelines of the EEA do not propose to estimate the environmental income. This implies that there is not a single indicator that integrates the ecosystem services obtained and the evolution of the environmental assets in the natural working landscapes in which the private and public activities are valued. The objective of this research is to discuss conceptually and compare the measurements of ecosystem services and environmental incomes in the extended Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS), and in refined versions of the official SNA and the ongoing EEA methodologies, through a case study of privately-owned holm oak dehesas working landscapes in Andalusia-Spain. This comparison shows that the refined SNA and the refined EEA in their current state of development do not allow the complete visualization of the environmental income contribution to the total income of the natural working landscapes. We also discuss the advances provided by the AAS extended accounting methodology that would be relevant for the EEA next improvements. ; The authors thank the Agency for Water and Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia for the financial and field work support for the REnta y CApital de los Montes de ANdalucía (RECAMAN) project (Contract NET 165602), the Valoraciones de servicios y activos de AMenidades privadas de fincas SILvopastorales (VAMSIL) project of CSIC (ref.: 201810E036) and the Mapping and Assessment for Integrated ecosystem Accounting (MAIA) project of EU call H2020-SC5-2018-1 (Grant Agreement Nr. 817527). ; Peer reviewed

22 Pags.- 3 Tabls.- 5 Figs. This open access article is distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license and is freely available online at: http://le.uwpress.org. ; The authors thank the Regional Government of Andalusia and the Agency for Water and Environment in Andalusia for their financial and field work support for the project Total social income and capital of Andalusian Forest (RECAMAN, contract NET165602). Paola Ovando acknowledges the support of the European Commission under the Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship Programme (PIEF2013621940) ; Peer reviewed

19 Pags.- 5 Figs.- 5 Tabls. © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Under a Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). ; National accounting either ignores or fails to give due values to the ecosystem services, products, incomes and environmental assets of a country. To overcome these shortcomings, we apply spatially-explicit extended accounts that incorporate a novel environmental income indicator, which we test in the forests of Andalusia (Spain). Extended accounts incorporate nine farmer activities (timber, cork, firewood, nuts, livestock grazing, conservation forestry, hunting, residential services and private amenity) and seven government activities (fire services, free access recreation, free access mushroom, carbon, landscape conservation, threatened biodiversity and water yield). To make sure the valuation remains consistent with standard accounts, we simulate exchange values for non-market final forest product consumption in order to measure individual ecosystem services and environmental income indicators. Manufactured capital and environmental assets are also integrated. When comparing extended to standard accounts, our results are 3.6 times higher for gross value added. These differences are explained primarily by the omission in the standard accounts of carbon activities and undervaluation of private amenity, free access recreation, landscape and threatened biodiversity ecosystem services. Extended accounts measure a value of Andalusian forest ecosystem services 5.4 times higher than that measured using the valuation criteria of standard accounts. ; This RECAMAN project research has received financial support from Agency of Environment and Water (AMAYA); Department of Environment and Territory Planning (CMAYOT) (contract No NET165602). ; Peer reviewed